Upper-atmosphere responses to the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha′apai volcanic eruption via acoustic gravity waves and air–sea interaction

A multi-group of strong atmospheric waves (wave packet nos. 1-5) over China associated with the 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha ' apai (HTHH) volcano eruptions were observed in the mesopause region using a ground-based airglow imager network. The horizontal phase speed of wave packet nos. 1 and 2 is approximately 309 and 236 ms-1, respectively, which is consistent with Lamb wave L0 mode and L1 mode from theoretical predictions. The amplitude of the Lamb wave L1 mode is larger than that of the L0 mode. The wave fronts of Lamb wave L0 and L1 below the lower thermosphere are vertical, while the wave fronts of L0 mode tilt forward above the lower atmosphere, exhibiting internal wave characteristics which show good agreement with the theoretical results. Two types of tsunamis were simulated; one type of tsunami is induced by the atmospheric-pressure wave (TIAPW), and the other type of tsunami is directly induced by the Tonga volcano eruption (TITVE). From backward ray-tracing analysis, the TIAPW and TITVE were likely the sources of wave packet nos. 3 and 4-5, respectively. The scale of tsunamis near the coast is very consistent with the atmospheric AGWs observed by the airglow network. The atmospheric gravity waves (AGWs) triggered by TITVE propagate nearly 3000 km inland with the support of a duct. The atmospheric-pressure wave can directly affect the upper atmosphere and can also be coupled with the upper atmosphere through the indirect way of generating a tsunami and, subsequently, tsunami-generating AGWs, which will provide a new understanding of the coupling between ocean and atmosphere.