Sensitivity of tornado dynamics to soil debris loading

Past numerical simulation studies found that debris loading from sand-sized particles may substantially affect tornado dynamics, causing reductions in near-surface wind speeds up to 50%. To further examine debris loading effects, simulations are performed using a large-eddy simulation model with a two-way drag force coupling between air and sand. Simulations encompass a large range of surface debris fluxes that cause negligible to substantial impact on tornado dynamics for a high-swirl tornado vortex simulation. Simulations are considered for a specific case with a single vortex flow type (swirl ratio, intensity, and translation velocity) and a fixed set of debris and aerodynamic parameters. Thus, it is stressed that these findings apply to the specific flow and debris parameters herein and would likely vary for different flows or debris parameters. For this specific case, initial surface debris fluxes are varied over a factor of 16 384, and debris cloud mass varies by only 42% of this range because a negative feedback reduces near-surface horizontal velocities. Debris loading effects on the axisymmetric mean flow are evident when maximum debris loading exceeds 0.1 kg kg⁻¹, but instantaneous maximum wind speed and TKE exhibit small changes at smaller debris loadings (greater than 0.01 kg kg⁻¹). Initially, wind speeds are reduced in a shallow, near-surface layer, but the magnitude and depth of these changes increases with higher debris loading. At high debris loading, near-surface horizontal wind speeds are reduced by 30%-60% in the lowest 10 m AGL. In moderate and high debris loading scenarios, the number and intensity of subvortices also decrease close to the surface.